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Hemp/Marijuana
Medical References
Exposing Marijuana Myths

Footnotes

From Exposing Marijuana Myths - A Review of the Scientific Evidence

 

1. Grinspoon, L., Marihuana Reconsidered, Cambridge: University of Harvard Press (1971); Kaplan, J., Marijuana: The New Prohibition, New York: World Publishing Company 1970); Brecher, E.M., Licit and Illicit Drugs, Boston: Little, Brown and Company (1972).

2. U.S. National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse, Marijuana: A Signal of Misunderstanding, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office (1972); Canadian Government's Commission of Inquiry, The Non-Medical Use of Drugs: Interim Report, Ottawa (1970).

3. Himmelstein, J., The Strange Career of Marijuana: Politics and Ideology of Decriminalization in America, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (1983); Single, E.W., "The Impact of Marijuana Decriminalization: An Update," Journal of Public Health Policy 10:456-66 (1989).

4. Carter, W.E. (ed), Cannabis in Costa Rica: A Study of Chronic Marijuana Use, Philadelphia: Institute for Study of Human Issues (1980); Rubin, V. and Comitas, L., Ganja in Jamaica, The Hague: Mouton (1975); Stefanis, C. et al, Hashish: Studies of Long Term Use, New York: Raven Press (1977).

5. Preliminary Estimates From the 1993 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1994).

6. Johnston, L.D. et al, Monitoring the Future, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Institute for Social Research (1994).

7. Ennett, S.T, et al, "How Effective is Drug Abuse Resistance Education? A Meta-Analysis of Project DARE Outcome Evaluations," American Journal of Public Health 84:1394-1401 (1994).

8. ElSohly, M.A. et al, "Constituents of Cannabis Sativa L XXIV: The Potency of Confiscated Marijuana, Hashish, and Hash Oil Over a Ten-year Period," Journal of Forensic Sciences 29:500-14 (1984).

9. Perry, D., "Street Drug Analysis and Drug Use Trends, Part II, 1969-1976," PharmChem Newsletter 6 (1977).

10. Rubin, V., "Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Therapeutic Uses of Cannabis," pp 1-18 in S. Cohen and R.C. Stillman (eds), The Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana, New York: Plenum Medical Book Company (1976).

11. Chang, A.E. et al, "Delta-Nine-Tetrahydrocannabinol as an Antiemetic in Cancer Patients Receiving High-Dose Methotrexate: A Prospective Randomized Evaluation, Annals of Internal Medicine 91: 819-24 (1979).

12.Hepler, R.S. and Frank, I.R., "Marijuana Smoking and Intracular Pressure," Journal of the American Medical Association 217: 1392 (1971).

13. Petro, D.J., "Marijuana as a Therapeutic Agent for Muscle Spasm or Spasticity," Psychosomatics 21: 81-85 (1980).

14. Grinspoon, L. and Bakalar, J.B, Marihuana: The Forbidden Medicine, New Haven: Yale University Press (1993).

15. Vinciguerra, V. et al, "Inhalation Marijuana as an Antiemetic for Cancer Chemotherapy," New York State Journal of Medicine 85:525-27 (1988); Dansac, D., "In the Matter of Marijuana Rescheduling Petition," Affidafit filed in Drug Enforcement Adminstration Hearings, Docket 86-22 (1987).

16. Doblin, R. and Kleiman, M.A.R., "Marijuana as an Anti-Emetic Medicine: A Survey of Oncologists' Attitudes and Experiences," Journal of Clinical Oncology 19: 1275-1290 (1991).

17. Agurell, S. et al, "Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism of Delta-1-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Other Cannabinoids with Emphasis on Man," Pharmacological Reviews 38: 21-43 (1986).

18. Cohen, S., "Therapeutic Aspects," pp 194-225 in R.C. Petersen (ed) Marijuana Research Findings: 1976, Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse (1977); Cohen, S. and Stillman, R.C. (eds), The Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana, New York: Plenum Medical Book Company (1976); National Institute on Drug Abuse, Marijuana and Health, Report to Congress (1980).

19. "Members of Congress Voice Support for Marijuana/AIDS Research," Newsletter of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies 5,3 (Winter 1995).

20. Drug Enforcement Administration, Drug Legalization: Myths and Misconceptions, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice (1994).

21. Huber, G.L. et al, "The Effects of Marihuana on the Respiratory and Cardiovascular Systems," pp 3-18 in G. Chesher et al (eds), Marijuana: an International Research Report, Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service (1988).

22. Tashkin, D.P. et al, "Longitudinal Changes in Respiratory Symptoms and Lung Function in Non-smokers, Tobacco Smokers, and Heavy, Habitual Smokers of Marijuana With or Without Tobacco," pp 25-36 in G. Chesher et al (eds), Marijuana: an International Research Report, Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service (1988).

23. Sherrill, D.L. et al, "Respiratory Effects of Non-Tobacco Cigarettes: A Longitudinal Study in General Population," International Journal of Epidemiology 20: 132-37 (1991).

24. Fligiel, S.E.G. et al, "Bronchial Pathology in Chronic Marijuana Smokers: A Light Electron Microscope Study," Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 20:33-42 (1988).

25. Doblin, R., "The MAPS/California NORML/Marijuana Waterpipe/Vaporizer Study," Newsletter of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies 5,1 (Summer 1994).

26. Nahas, G.G. et al, "Inhibition of Cellular Mediated Immunity in Marijuana Smokers," Science 183:419-20 (1974).

27. Lau, R.J. et al, "Phytohemagglutinin-Induced Lymphocyte Transformation in Humans Receiving Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol," Science 192: 805-07 (1976); White, S.C. et al, "Mitogen-Induced Blastogenetic Responses to Lymphocytes from Marijuana Smokers," Science 188: 71-72 (1975).

28. Wallace, J.M. et al, "Peripheral Blood Lymphocyte Subpopulations and Mitogen Responsiveness in Tobacco and Marijuana Smokers," Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 20:9-14 (1988).

29. Mishkin, E.M. and Cabral, G.A., "Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Decreases Host Resistance to Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 Vaginal Infection in the BGC3F1 Mouse," Journal of General Virology 66:2539-49 (1985).

30. Carter, W.E. (ed), Cannabis in Costa Rica: A Study of Chronic Marijuana Use, Philadelphia: Institute for Study of Human Issues (1980); Rubin, V. and Comitas, L., Ganja in Jamaica, The Hague: Mouton (1975); Stefanis, C. et al, Hashish: Studies of Long Term Use, New York: Raven Press (1977).

31. Coates, R.A. et al, "Cofactors of Progression to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome in a Cohort of Male Sexual Contacts of Men with Immunodeficiency Virus Disease," American Journal of Epidemiology 132: 717-22 (1990).

32. Plasse, T.F. et al, "Recent Clinical Experience with Dronabinol," Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 40:695-700 (1991).

33. Lynn, A.B. and Herkenham, M., "Localization of Cannabinoid Receptors and Nonsaturable High Density Cannabinoid Binding Sites in Peripheral Tissues of the Rat: Implications for Receptor-Mediated Immune Modulation by Cannabinoids," Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 268: 1612-23 (1994).

34. Kolodny, R.C. et al, "Depression of Plasma Testosterone Levels After Chronic Intensive Marijuana Use," New England Journal of Medicine 290:872-74 (1974).

35. Kolodny, R.C. et al, "Depression of Plasma Testosterone with Acute Marijuana Administration," pp 217-25 in M.C. Braude and S. Szara (eds), Pharmacology of Marijuana, New York: Raven Press (1976).

36. Mendelson, G.D. et al, "Plasma Testosterone Levels Before, During, and After Chronic Marijuana Smoking," New England Journal of Medicine 291:1051-55 (1975); Schaefer, C.F. et al, "Normal Plasma Testosterone Concentrations After Marijuana Smoking," New England Journal of Medicine 292:867-68 (1975).

37. Hembree, W.C. et al, "Changes in Human Spermatozoa Associated with High Dose Marijuana Smoking," pp 429-39 in G.G. Nahas and W.D.M. Paton (eds), Marijuana: Biological Effects, Oxford: Pergamon Press (1979).

38. Fijimoto, G.I. et al, "Effect of Marijuana Extract Given Orally on Male Rat Reproduction and Gonads," Proceedings of Sixth Annual Meetings of Endocrinology Society (1978); Okey, A.B. and Truant, G.S., "Cannabis Demasculinizes Rats But Is Not Estrogenic," Life Sciences 17:1113-18 (1975).

39. Block, R.I. et al, "Effects of Chronic Marijuana Use on Testosterone, Luteinizing Hormone, Follicle Stimulating Hormone, Prolactin and Cortisol in Men and Women," Drug and Alcohol Dependence 28:121-8 (1991).

40. Smith, C.G. and Asch, R.H., "Acute, Short-Term, and Chronic Effects of Marijuana on the Female Primate Reproductive Function," pp 82-96 in M.C. Braude and J.P. Ludford (eds), Marijuana Effects on the Endocrine and Reproductive Systems, Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services (1984).

41. Smith, C.G. et al, "Tolerance Develops to the Disruptive Effects of Delta 9 Tetrahydrocannabinol on the Primate Menstrual Cycle," Science 219:1453-55 (1983).

42. Copeland, K.C. et al, "Marijuana Smoking and Pubertal Arrest," Journal of Pediatrics 96:1079-80 (1980).

43. Tennes, A., "Effects of Marijuana on Pregnancy and Fetal Development in the Human," pp 115-23 in M.C. Braude and J. P, Ludford (eds), Marijuana Effects on the Endocrine and Reproductive Systems, Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services (1984).

44. Astley, S., "Analysis of Facial Shape in Children Gestationally Exposed to Marijuana, Alcohol, and/or Cocaine," Pediatrics 89:67-77 (1992); Day, N. et al, "Prenatal Marijuana Use and Neonatal Outcome," Neurotoxicology and Teratology 13:329-34 (1992); Linn, S. et al, "The Association of Marijuana Use with Outcome of Pregnancy," American Journal of Public Health 73:1161-64 (1983).

45. Hayes, J. et al, "Newborn Outcomes with Maternal Marijuana Use in Jamaican Women," Pediatric Nursing 14(2):107-10 (1988); Streissguth, A.P. et al, "IQ at Age 4 in Relation to Maternal Alcohol Use and Smoking During Pregnancy," Developmental Psychology 25: 3-11 (1989); Richardson, G.A. et al, "The Effect of Prenatal Alcohol, Marijuana and Tobacco Exposure on Neonatal Behavior," Infant Behavioral Development 12: 199-209 (1989); O'Connell, C.M. and Fried, P.A., "Prenatal Exposure to Cannabis: A Preliminary Report of Postnatal Consequences in School-Age Children," Neurotoxicology and Teratology 13: 631-39 (1991); Fried, P.A. et al, "60- and 72-Month Follow-Up of Children Prenatally Exposed to Marijuana, Cigarettes and Alcohol," Journal of Developmental Behavior and Pediatrics 13: 383-91 (1992); Dreher, M.C. et al, "Prenatal Exposure and Neonatal Outcomes in Jamaica: An Ethnographic Study," Pediatrics 93: 254-60 (1994).

46. Buckley, J.D. et al, "Occupational Exposure of Parents of Children with Acute Nonlymphocytic Leukemia: A Report from the Children's Cancer Study Group," Cancer Research 49:4030-37 (1989).

47. Fried, P.A., "Postnatal Consequences of Maternal Marijuana Use," pp 61-72 in T.M. Pinkert (ed), Current Research on the Consequences of Maternal Drug Abuse, Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse; Fried, P.A. and B. Watkinson, "12- and 24-Month Neurobehavioral Follow-Up of Children Prenatally Exposed to Marijuana, Cigarettes and Alcohol," Neurotoxicology and Teratology 10: 305-13 (1988)

48. Fried, P.A. and B. Watkinson, "36- and 48-Month Neurobehavioral Follow-Up of Children Prenatally Exposed to Marijuana, Cigarettes, and Alcohol," Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics11: 49-58 (1990).

49. Fried, P.A. et al, "A Follow-Up Study of Attentional Behavior in 6-Year-Old Children Exposed Prenatally to Marijuana, Cigarettes, and Alcohol," Neurotoxicology and Teratology 14: 299-311 (1992).

50. Day, N.L. et al, "Effect of Prenatal Marijuana Exposure on the Cognitive Development of Offspring at Age Three," Neurotoxicology and Teratology 16: 169-75 (1994).

51. Heath, B.C. et al, "Cannabis Sativa: Effects on Brain Function and Ultrastructure in Rhesus Monkeys," Biological Psychiatry 15:657 (1980).

52. Scallet, A.C., "Neurotoxicology of Cannabis and THC: A Review of Chronic Exposure Studies in Animals," Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 40:671-82 (1991).

53. Slikker, W. et al, "Behavioral, Neurochemical, and Neurohistological Effects of Chronic Marijuana Smoke Exposure in the Nonhuman Primate," pp 219-74 in L. Murphy and A. Bartke (eds), Marijuana/Cannabinoids Neurobiology and Neurophysiology, Boca Raton: CRC Press (1992).

54. Weckowicz, T.E. et al, "Effect of Marijuana on Divergent and Convergent Production Cognitive Tests," Journal of Abnormal Psychology 84:386-98 (1975); Hooker, W.D., and Jones, R.T., "Increased Susceptibility to Memory Intrusions and the Stroop Interference Effect During Acute Marijuana Intoxication," Psychopharmacology 91: 20-24 (1987); Waskow, I.E. et el, "Psychological Effects of Tetrahydrocannabinol," Archives of General Psychiatry 22: 97-107 (1970); Dornbush, R.L. and Kokkevi, A., "Acute Effects of Cannabis on Cognitive, Perceptual, and Motor Performance in Chronic Hashish Users," Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 282: 213-22 (1976).

55. Darley, C.F. et al, "Marijuana Effects on Long-Term Memory Assessment and Retrieval," Psychopharmacology 52:239-41 (1977); Abel, E.L., "Retrieval of Information After Use of Marijuana," pp 121-24 in E.L. Abel (ed) The Scientific Study of Marijuana, Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers (1976); Abel, E.L., "Marijuana and Memory: Acquisition or Retrieval?" pp 125-32 in E.L. Abel (ed) The Scientific Study of Marijuana, Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers (1976).

56. Abel, E.L., "Marijuana and Memory: Acquisition or Retrieval?" pp 125-32 in E.L. Abel (ed) The Scientific Study of Marijuana, Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers (1976); Miller, L. et al, "Effects of Marijuana on Recall of Narrative Material and Stroop Colour-Word Performance," pp 117-20 in E.L. Abel (ed) The Scientific Study of Marijuana, Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers (1976); Dornbush, R.L. et al, "Marijuana, Memory, and Perception," pp 133-40 in E.L. Abel (ed) The Scientific Study of Marijuana, Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers (1976).

57. Ferraro, D.P., "Acute Effects of Marijuana on Human Memory and Cognition," pp 98-119 in R.C. Petersen (ed) Marijuana Research Findings: 1980, Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse (1980).

58. Satz, P. et al, "Neuropsychologic, Intellectual, and Personality Correlates of Chronic Marijuana Use in Native Costa Ricans," Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 282: 266-306 (1976); Grant, I. et al, "A Neuropsychological Assessment of the Effects of Moderate Marijuana Use," Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 156: 278-80 (1973); Knights, R., "Psychological Test Results," pp 111-20 in V. Rubin and L. Comitas (eds), Ganja in Jamaica, The Hague: Mouton (1975); Page, J.B., "Psychosociocultural Perspectives on Chronic Cannabis Use: The Costa Rican Follow-Up," Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 20: 57-65 (1988); Carlin, A.S. and Trupin, E.W., "The Effect of Long-Term Chronic Marijuana Use on Neuropsychological Functioning," International Journal of the Addictions 12:617-24 (1977).

59. Preliminary Estimates from the 1993 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1994).

60. Johnston, L.D. et al, Drug Use Among American High School Seniors, College Students and Young Adults, 1975-1990,Vol II, Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1991), p 31.

61. Jones, R.T. et al, "Clinical Studies of Cannabis Tolerance and Dependence," Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 282:221-39 (1976).

62. Stefanis. C. et al, "Experimental Observations of a 3-Day Hashish Abstinence Period and Reintroduction of Use," Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 282:113-20 (1976); Cohen, S. et al, "The 94-Day Study," pp 621-26 in M.C. Braude and S. Szara (eds), The Pharmacology of Marijuana, New York: Raven Press (1976).

63. Deneau, G.A. and Kaymakcalan, S., "Physiological and Psychological Dependence to Synthetic Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in Rhesus Monkeys," Pharmacologist13:246 (1971).

64. Martin, B.R., "Marijuana: What It Is and What It Does," Presentation at NIDA's National Conference on Marijuana Use Prevention, Treatment and Research," Arlington, VA (July 1995).

65. Gold, M.S., The Good News About Drugs and Alcohol, New York: Villard Books (1991).

66. Jacobs, J.B. and Zimmer, L., "Drug Treatment and Workplace Drug Testing: Politics, Symbolism and Organizational Dilemmas," Behavioral Sciences and the Law 9:345-60 (1991).

67. Annual Emergency Room Data, 1990, National Institute on Drug Abuse Statistical Series, Series I, Number 10-A, Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse (1991); Annual Emergency Room Data, 1992, National Institute on Drug Abuse Statistical Series, Series I, Number 12-A, Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse (1993); Preliminary Estimates from the Drug Abuse Warning Network, Advance Report Number 8, Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse (1994).

68. McGlothlin, H.W. and West, L.J., "The Marijuana Problem: An Overview," American Journal of Psychiatry 125:1126-34 (1968); Smith, D.E., "The Acute and Chronic Toxicity of Marijuana," Journal of Psychedelic Drugs 2:37-48 (1968).

69. Brill, N.O. and Christie, R.L., "Marijuana Use and Psychosocial Adaptation," Archives of General Psychiatry 31:713-19 (1974); Kupfer, D.J. et al, "A Comment on the Amotivational Syndrome in Marijuana Smokers," American Journal of Psychiatry 130:1319-22 (1973).

70. Kleinman, P.H. et al, "Daily Marijuana Use and Problem Behaviors Among Adolescents," International Journal of Addictions 23:87-107 (1988).

71. Mellinger, G.D. et al, "Drug Use, Academic Performance, and Career Indecision: Longitudinal Data in Search of a Model," pp 157-77 in D.B. Kandel (ed), Longitudinal Research on Drug Use: Empirical Findings and Methodological Issues, Washington, DC: Hemisphere (1978).

72. Mellinger, G.D. et al, "The Amotivational Syndrome and the College Student," Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 282:37-55 (1976).

73. Miranne. H.C., "Marijuana Use and Achievement Orientations of College Students," Journal of Health and Social Behavior 20:194-99 (1979).

74. Cohen, S., "The 94-Day Cannabis Study," Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 282:211-20 (1976).

75. Mendelson, J.H. et al, "The Effects of Marijuana Use on Human Operant Behavior: Individual Data," pp 643-53 in M.C. Braude and S. Szara (eds), The Pharmacology of Marijuana, Vol 2, New York: Raven Press (1976).

76. Campbell, I., "The Amotivational Syndrome and Cannabis use with Emphasis on the Canadian Scene," Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 282:33-36.

77. McBay, A.J. and Owens, S.M., "Marijuana and Driving," pp 257-63 in L.S. Harris (ed) Problems of Drug Dependence 1980, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office (1981); Teale, J.D. et al, "The Incidence of Cannabinoids in Fatally Impaired Drivers: An Investigation by Radioimmunoassay and High Pressure Liquid Chromatography," Journal of the Forensic Science Society 17:177-83 (1978).

78. Terhune, K.W. et al, The Incidence and Role of Drugs in Fatally Injured Drivers, Washington, DC: Department of Transportation (1994).

79. Brookoff, D. et al, "Testing Reckless Drivers for Cocaine and Marijuana," New England Journal of Medicine 331:518-22 (1994).

80. Kv'alseth, T.O., "Effects of Marijuana on Human Reaction Time and Motor Control," Perceptual and Motor Skills 45:935-39 (1977); Hansteen, R.W. et al, "Effects of Cannabis and Alcohol on Automobile Driving and Psychomotor Tracking," Annals of New York Academy of Sciences 282:240-56 (1976); Moskowitz, H. et al, "Marijuana: Effects on Simulated Driving Performance," Accident Analysis and Prevention 8:45-50 (1976); Moskowitz, H. et al, "Visual Search Behavior While Viewing Driving Scenes Under the Influence of Alcohol and Marijuana," Human Factors 18:417-31 (1976).

81. Stein, A.C. et al, A Simulator Study of the Combined Effects of Alcohol and Marijuana on Driving Behavior-Phase II, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation (1983).

82. Robbe, H. and O'Hanlon, J., Marijuana and Actual Driving Performance, Washington, DC: Department of Transportation (1993).

83. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Main Findings 1990; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Preliminary Estimates from the 1993 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse.

84. Johnston, L.D. et al, Monitoring the Future, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Institute for Social Research (1994).

85. Cohen, P.D.A., Cannabisgebruikers in Amsterdam, Jaarbeurs Congrescentrum Utrecht (1995).

86. Leuw, E. and Marshall, I.H. (eds)., Between Prohibition and Legalization: The Dutch Experiment in Drug Policy, Amsterdam: Kugler Publications (1994).

87. Netherlands Institute for Alcohol and Drugs, "Cannabis Policy Fact Sheet," Netherlands Alcohol and Drug Report 1 (1995); Leuw, E., "Initial Construction and Development of the Official Dutch Drug Policy," pp 23-40 in E. Leuw and I.H. Marshall (eds), Between Prohibition and Legalization: The Dutch Experiment in Drug Policy, Amsterdam: Kugler Publications (1994).

88. de Zwart, W.M. et al, Key Data: Smoking, Drinking, Drug Use and Gambling Among Pupils Aged 10 Years and Older, Utrecht: Netherlands Institute on Alcohol and Drugs (1994). 89. National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Main Findings 1990, Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse (1991); Preliminary Estimates from the 1993 Household Survey on Drug Abuse, Advance Report Number 7, Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse (1994).

90. National Survey Results on Drug Use, from the Monitoring the Future Study, 1975-1993, Volume I, Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse (1994).

91. de Zwart, W.M. et al, Key Data: Smoking, Drinking, Drug Use and Gambling Among Pupils Aged 10 Years and Older, Utrecht: Netherlands Institute on Alcohol and Drugs (1994).

92. "The Drug Policy in the Netherlands," Joint Report of the Ministry of Welfare, Health and Cultural Affairs and the Ministry of Justice (1994).

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