Implications of LSD and Experimental Mysticism
Walter N. Pahnke & William A. Richards
Journal of Religion & Health, Vol. 5, 1966, pp. 175-208.
Mirrored in the sensationalistic array of recent magazine and
newspaper articles focusing upon the past, present, and future
uses of drugs like LSD is a blurred spectrum of attitudes ranging
from an indignant desire to destroy a terrifying plague of drug-induced
psychoses to a naive belief that the keys to Utopia have finally
been placed into the hands of man. In the light of this complex
controversy, the need soberly to consider the potential dangers
and values inherent in this field of research from theological,
psychiatric, and societal perspectives has become crucial. The
special class of drugs in question, including lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD), psilocybin, and mescaline, to name the major examples,
has been given many names, from psychotomimetic to mysticomimetic,
but the two terms that are gaining acceptance are psycholytic
(mind-releasing) in Europe and psychedelic (mind-opening)
in the United States. These drugs are not narcotics, sedatives,
or energizers, but have the unique effect on the human psyche
of bringing into awareness forms of consciousness that are usually
hidden or unconscious.
At the outset it must be stated that since the statistics of the
first major attempts at controlled experimentation in this field
are still being compiled, none of the proposed uses of these drugs
can at present be supported by conclusive empirical data. The
high hopes that constructive uses of these drugs may be validated
empirically, however, are reflected in the formation of the International
Association for Psychodelytic Therapy; in international conferences
on the use of LSD in psychotherapy, held in New York City in 1959
(Abramson, 1960), in London in 1961 (Crockett, Sandison, &
Walk, 1963), and on Long Island in 1965 (Abramson, 1967); and
in the two days devoted to the psychedelics in March, 1966, by
the Collegium Internationale Neuropsychopharmacologicum in
Washington. In the midst of this experimental ferment, however,
we are confronted by the very real possibility that the known
and unknown uses of these drugs that could prove to be legitimate
and beneficial for individual persons and society may be suppressed
until some future century when investigation will be permitted
to proceed unhampered by popular hysteria and overrestrictive
legislation. In the United States, interested and capable scientists
are hesitating to investigate this field because of the abundance
of unfavorable publicity and the threat of condemnation by identification
with irresponsible researchers. Even among those who are willing
to risk their reputations, some are finding it difficult to obtain
the governmental approval now prerequisite for the legal acquisition
of these drugs for research purposes. Paradoxically, a significant
danger confronting our society may lie in losing out on the values
that the responsible use of these drugs may offer. Hypnosis, for
example, is only beginning to recover from the sensationalistic
publicity and irrational reactions that surrounded Mesmer and
subsequently suppressed its legitimate use for almost a century.
The first section of this article attempts to define and illustrate
a specific form of psychedelic experience that is frequently reported
when relatively high dosage is administered to normal subjects
or selected mental patients in supportive settings. For want of
a better term, we have called this form of experience mystical
consciousness. A second section then briefly surveys other
forms of altered consciousness associated with the ingestion of
these drugs, illustrating how they differ from mystical consciousness.
A third section presents and discusses the research findings that
have suggested the similarity, if not the identity, between the
psychedelic experience of mystical consciousness and spontaneously
occurring experiences recorded in the literature of mysticism
A final section considers some of the theological, psychiatric,
and societal implications arising out of such research, stressing
promise for the future as well as the very definite hazards of
irresponsible experimentation.
THE PSYCHEDELIC EXPERIENCE OF MYSTICAL CONSCIOUSNESS
The form of psychedelic experience here called mystical consciousness
can best be described as a dimension of experience that, when
expressed on paper by an experimental subject and subsequently
content-analyzed, corresponds to nine interrelated categories,
each of which is described below. These categories were derived
by Pahnke (1963) from a historical survey of the literature of
spontaneous mysticism, including the commentaries of scholars
such as William James (1929) and W. T. Stace (1960). As Stace
has emphasized, such categories attempt to describe the core of
a universal psychological experience, free from culturally determined
philosophical or theological interpretations. Some of the categories
described below are illustrated by excerpts from phenomenological
descriptions of psychedelic experiences. The ontological status
of such descriptions may, of course, be debated. Our concern here
is simply to present examples of the psychological phenomena being
reported.
1. UNITY
Experience of an undifferentiated unity, we suggest, is the hallmark
of mystical consciousness. Such unity may be either internal
or external, depending upon whether the subject-object
dichotomy transcended is between the usual self and an inner world"
within the experiencer, or whether it is between the usual
self and the external world of sense impressions outside the
experiencer. Both forms of unity are known to occur within the
same person, even in the same psychedelic session. Although each
form of unity occurs in a different manner, the states of consciousness
ultimately experienced may be identical.
Internal unity reportedly occurs in the following manner: Awareness
of all normal sense impressions (visual, auditory, cutaneous,
olfactory, gustatory, and kinesthetic) cases, and the empirical
ego (i.e., the usual sense of individuality) seems to die or face
away while pure consciousness of what is being experienced paradoxically
remains and seems to expand as a vast inner world is encountered.
A sense of movement is experienced within this inner world through
numerous so-called "dimensions of being" towards a goal
that is felt to have the status of ultimate reality. Internal
unity occurs when consciousness merges with this "ground
of being," beyond all empirical distinctions. Although awareness
of one's empirical ego has ceased, one does not become unconscious.
I found myself grunting in agreement or mumbling, "Of course
it has always been this way" over and over again as the panorama
of my life seemed to be swept up by this unifying and eternal
principle... I seemed to relinquish my life in "layers:"
the more I let go, the greater sense of oneness I received. As
I approached what I firmly believed to be the point of death,
I experienced an ever greater sense of an eternal dimension to
life.
In contrast, external unity generally seems to occur as follows:
Awareness of one or more particular sense impressions grows in
intensity until suddenly the object of perception and the empirical
ego simultaneously seem to cease to exist as separate entities,
while consciousness seems to transcend subject and object and
become impregnated by a profound sense of unity, accompanied by
the insight that ultimately "all is One." The subject-object
dichotomy transcended may be between the empirical ego and (1)
an animate visual object such as another person or a rose, (2)
an inanimate visual object such as the leg of a table (Huxley,
1963) or even a grain of sand; or (3) an auditory object
such as the music of a symphony. Theoretically, objects of other
sensory modalities could stand in polar relation to the empirical
ego and be incorporated into experiences of external unity as
well.
When looking at the rose as an object, it seemed to "come
alive" before my eyes. Its petals seemed to "breathe"
as, slowly and gracefully, then unfolded, seeming to express
the ultimate in beauty. Fascinated, I watched these movements
of "cosmic gentleness" until, suddenly, I knew the
rose; that is to say, transcending the dichotomy of subject and
object, I somehow became One with the rose, no longer existing
as an ego passively viewing an object in its environment. Although
in the objectivity of my critical mind, I knew there were no physical
changes in the flower, subjectively I seemed to see it in a totally
new perspective, a perspective which elicited tears and deep feelings
of reverence.... Supporting the ancient monistic school of thought,
I expressed the philosophical insight that, 'We are all the same
thing."... Another time I commented that, "There
is more to beauty than we know."
2. OBJECTIVITY AND REALITY
Intrinsic to this second category are two interrelated elements:
(I) insightful knowledge or illumination about being
or existence in general that is felt at an intuitive, nonrational
level and gained by direct experience, and (a) the authoritativeness
or the certainty for the experiences that such knowledge is truly
or ultimately real, in contrast to the feeling that the experience
is a subjective delusion. These two elements are connected because
the knowledge through participation in ultimate reality (in the
sense of being able to know and see what is real),
carries its own sense of certainty. It is to this facet of
mystical consciousness that William James assigned the term "noetic
quality," writing: "Although so similar to states of
feeling, mystical states seem to those who experience them to
be also states of knowledge. They are states of insight into depths
of truth unplumbed by the discursive intellect" (James, 1929).
Such insight is intuitively felt to be of a more fundamental form
of reality than either the phenomena of everyday consciousness
or the most vivid of dreams or hallucinations.
I was experiencing directly the metaphysical theory known as emanationism
in which, beginning with the clear, unbroken and infinite light
of God, the light then breaks into forms and lessens in intensity
as it passes through descending degrees of reality... Bergson's
concept of the brain as a reducing valve I now saw to be precisely
true.... The emanation theory, and especially the elaborately
worked out layers of Hindu and Buddhist cosmology and psychology
had heretofore been concepts and inferences. Now they were objects
of the most direct and immediate perception. I could we exactly
how these theories would have come into being if their progenitors
had had this experience. But beyond accounting for their origin,
my experience testified to their absolute truth.
Experience of the contents of this category may be expressed in
many ways, among which are assertions of having known the origin
and goal of history, of having found the answer to the ancient
query, "What am I?", of having intuited the harmonious
structure of the universe, of having experienced the primacy of
love and the brotherhood of man, or of having realized the reality
of life that transcends temporal death.
3. TRANSCENDENCE OF SPACE AND TIME
This category refers on one hand to the loss of a person's usual
orientation as to where he is during the experience in terms of
the usual three-dimensional perception of his environment, and
on the other hand, to a radical change in perspective in which
he suddenly feels as though he is outside of time, in eternity
or infinity, beyond both past and future. In this state of consciousness,
space and time are generally meaningless concepts, although one
may feel that one can look back upon the totality of history from
this transcendent perspective.
From the perspective of the Timeless, I could see my life in retrospect
and prospect. It was as if it had all been lived through before,
as if we had all been here before, and would be here again. There
was a strong preordained feeling about this. I began to see a
bit into the future. I understood that I should go back and try
to work through some unresolved problems in my relationships with
others, and that there would be considerable suffering ahead.
My own death was also dimly sensed and strangely accepted. I saw
the unbroken continuity of my past with my future, which
was not contradicted by the feeling that this present experience
would remain with me and bring about deep changes. The fact that
all was preordained did not contradict living in freedom, fighting
for truth and against evil...
4. SENSE OF SACREDNESS
Sacredness is here defined as a nonrational, intuitive, hushed,
palpitant response in the presence of inspiring realities. It
is that which a person feels to be of special value and capable
of being profaned. Inherent in the nondifferentiated unity of
mystical consciousness is a profound sense of holiness and sacredness
that is felt to be at a more basic level than any religious or
philosophical concepts held by the experiencer. Furthermore, an
acute awareness of infinitude is reported, as though one had stood
before the Infinite in profound humility, overwhelmed by feelings
of awe and reverence. This aspect of mystical consciousness is
well reflected in Rudolf Otto's term, the mysterium tremendum
(Otto, 1958, pp. 12-40).
The most impressive and intense part of this experience was the
white light of absolute purity and cleanness. It was like
a glowing and sparkling flame of incandescent whiteness and beauty,
but not really a flame-more like a gleaming white-hot ingot, yet
much bigger and vaster than a mere ingot. The associated feelings
were those of absolute awe, reverence, and sacredness.
Just before this experience I had the feeling of going deep
within myself to the self stripped bare of all pretense and falseness.
It was the point where a man could stand firm with absolute integrity—something
more important than mere physical life. The white light experience
was of supreme importance—absolutely self-validating
and something worth staking your life on and putting your trust
in. The white light itself was so penetrating and intense that
it was not possible to look directly at it. It was not in the
room with me, but we were both somewhere else-and my body was
left far behind.
5. DEEPLY-FELT POSITIVE MOOD
This category focuses upon the feelings of joy, love, blessedness,
and peace inherent in mystical consciousness. Joy may be exuberant
or quiet. Love may vary in intensity from feelings of tenderness,
through deeply felt nonsensual feelings of ultimate concern for
other persons, to a state resembling prolonged intense sexual
orgasm. The latter degree of intensity is generally dissociated
from any stimulation or excitation of the sexual organs, being
"spiritual" rather than "erotic" in nature.
Peace is "the peace which passes understanding" and
entails not only deep relaxation, but a conviction that ultimately
there is no ground for anxiety.
The feelings I experienced could best be described as cosmic tenderness,
infinite love, penetrating peace, eternal blessing and unconditional
acceptance on one hand, and on the other, as unspeakable awe,
overflowing joy, primeval humility, inexpressible gratitude and
boundless devotion. Yet all of these words are hopelessly inadequate
and can do little more than meekly point towards the genuine inexpressible
feelings actually experienced.
6. PARADOXICALITY
This category reflects the manner in which significant aspects
of mystical consciousness are felt by the experiencer to be true
in spite of the fact that they violate the laws of Aristotelian
logic. For example, the subject claims to have died or ceased
to exist, yet obviously continues to exist and even writes about
his experiences. He may claim to have experienced an empty unity
that at the same time contains all reality. He may write about
non-being that is more than being. He may claim to have felt "out
of the body" while he was still "in the body."
He may envision a universal self that is both unqualitied and
qualitied, both impersonal and personal, and both inactive and
active.
There was awareness of undifferentiated unity, embracing the perfect
identity of subject and object, of singleness and plurality, of
the One and the Many. Thus I found myself (if indeed the words
"I" and "myself" have any meaning m such a
context) at once the audience, the actors and the play! Logically
the One can give birth to the Many and the Many can merge
into the One or be fundamentally but not identical with it; they
cannot be in all respects one and many simultaneously.
But now logic was transcended... I doubt if this statement
can possibly be made to seem meaningful at the ordinary level
of consciousness. No wonder the mystics of all faiths teach that
understanding comes only when logic and intellect are transcended!
... Logic also boggles at trying to explain how I could at once
perceive and yet be those colours and those forms,
how the seer, the seeing and the seen, the
feeler, the feeling and the felt could all
be one; but, to me, all this was so clearly self-evident as to
suggest the words "childishly simple" (Blofeld, I966,
p. 29).
7. ALLEGED INEFFABILITY
When a subject attempts to communicate mystical consciousness
verbally to another person, he usually claims that the available
linguistic symbols—if not the structure of language itself—are
inadequate to contain or even accurately reflect such experience.
Perhaps the reason such experience is felt to be beyond words
is to be found in a frustration with language, which, in turn,
arises out of the paradoxical nature of the essential phenomena
and the incomparable uniqueness of the experience itself. One
subject likened himself to a cave-man who was momentarily transported
into the bustling center of Manhattan and then returned to his
cave, suggesting that, when subsequently interrogated by his wife,
such a cave-man could not claim that his experience was ineffable
in spite of the fact that it seemed intrinsically logical at the
time, as though it could be discussed with words by some future
generation.
To seek to condense any of my experiences into words is to distort
them rendering them finite and impure... What is a "transcendent
dimension of being?" Such words on paper are little more
than metaphysical poetry. Somehow I feel I could better communicate
my experience by composing a symphony or by molding a twisted
piece of contemporary sculpture, had I the talents required for
either form of artistic expression. In no sense have I an urge
to formulate philosophical or theological dogmas about
my experience. Only my silence can retain its purity and genuineness.
8. TRANSIENCY
This category refers to the temporary duration of mystical consciousness
in contrast to the relative permanence of the level of usual experience.
The special and unusual forms of consciousness discussed above
appear, remain for anywhere from a matter of seconds to a few
hours and then disappear, returning the experiencer to his usual
state of everyday consciousness. The characteristic of transiency
indicates that the mystical state of consciousness is not sustained
indefinitely and marks one of the important differences between
it and psychosis.
9. POSITIVE CHANGES IN ATTITUDE AND/OR BEHAVIOR
Persons who have experienced the contents of the eight categories
discussed above are also known to report concomitant changes in
attitudes (1) toward themselves, (2) toward others, (3) toward
life, and (4) toward mystical consciousness itself. Increased
personality integration is reported, including a renewed sense
of personal worth coupled with a relaxation of habitual mechanisms
of ego defense. It is as though Paul Tillich's assertion that
"It is the power of being-itself that accepts and gives the
courage to be" (Tillich, 1952, p. 185) has been immediately
experienced as true, and one thus is able to "accept oneself
as accepted in spite of being unacceptable" (Tillich, 1952,
p. 164). One feels as though personal problems can now be so confronted
that they may finally be reduced or eliminated. One's faith in
one's own potential for creative achievement tends to be increased,
at least at the subjective level. In one's relationships with
other persons, greater sensitivity, increased tolerance, and more
real compassion are reported. Theologically trained persons frequently
feel that they have acquired new and profound insights into the
meaning Martin Buber sought to convey in his term "the I-Thou
relationship," finally knowing the meaning of genuinely meeting
another person without the subtle masks that separate man from
man. Changed or enlarged attitudes towards life are reported in
the areas of deeper sensitivity to values that are felt to be
eternal, increased sensitivity to an inner imperative that seeks
expression through other-centered behavior, increased vocational
commitment, loss of a fear of death coupled with an expanded awareness
of the significance of historical existence, and an enriched appreciation
for the whole of creation. As an expression of these attitudes,
more time may be spent in meditation. The memory of mystical consciousness
itself is regarded as deeply meaningful and similar experiences
may be sought as a source of growth and strength.
Although attitudinal and behavioral changes such as these are
subjectively reported by psychedelic subjects who have experienced
the contents of the preceding eight categories, the duration and
permanence of such changes and the extent to which they are manifested
in everyday existence are topics in need of extensive research.
Only after such research is completed can the degree of correspondence
between the positive changes claimed by psychedelic subjects and
the effects of spontaneous life-enhancing mystical experiences
be determined.
NONMYSTICAL FORMS OF ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS
We now turn our attention to other forms of drug-facilitated altered
consciousness that cannot be classified as mystical as
this term has been defined above. According to the standards here
suggested, many experimental subjects who have only seen visionary
imagery and felt powerful emotions may be understood to have had
nonmystical experiences of an aesthetic, psychodynamic, psychotic
or cognitive nature In advancing his hypothesis that mystical
consciousness is ultimately one and the same, irrespective of
the culture, era, or childhood traumas associated with any given
mystic, W. T. Stace (1960, pp. 50-51) emphasizes that, "On
the essential point of distinguishing between visions and mystical
experiences the Christian mystics and the Hindu mystics are in
complete accord." In non-mystical forms of consciousness,
the empirical ego generally exists as the subject viewing objects
of a visionary nature, or pondering objects of a cognitive nature;
only in mystical consciousness and some psychotic reactions is
the subject-object dichotomy transcended and the empirical ego
extinguished.
AESTHETIC PHENOMENA
One of the first effects noted by many persons after ingesting
a psychedelic drug is a change in spatial perception. Distances
suddenly seem to be different. A person sitting across the room
may suddenly seem to be sitting only a few feet away. The ceiling
may seem to bulge at the corners of the room and the walls may
undulate as though they were breathing. It may actually seem possible
to step inside a picture of a woodland scene on the wall and walk
among the trees. Such distortions of perception are often quite
amusing and may be temporary. To the person of artistic temperament,
they may be especially intriguing. Although such phenomena are
usually seen as delightful illusions, occasionally reality-testing
is impaired in a delusory manner.
As other changes in the nervous system occur, a person is likely
to become increasingly sensitive to color and to form. Colors
often grow richer and deeper, while the contours of objects in
the room may stand out in sharp relief. The whole environment
may seem to come into sharper focus, as though the person had
just discarded a dirty, incorrectly ground pair of glasses for
a clean, perfectly ground pair.
Also, near the beginning of an experience, one frequently sees
geometric patterns of multi-colored abstract lines that are visionary
in nature. Although such patterns are often more clearly visible
when one's eyes are closed, they may be seen superimposed upon
objects in the external world when one's eyes are open. These
abstract patterns are generally three-dimensional and constantly
change in a steady, rhythmic flow, resembling the view through
a kaleidoscope.
Objects in the room or parts of such objects may be symmetrically
incorporated into this visionary pattern. Thus, instead of being
composed merely of abstract lines, it may contain any number of
objects such as candles, flowers, human eyes, reels from a tape-recorder,
etc. At this point an experience may be seen to have overtones
of psychodynamic significance, although such overtones usually
are not consciously recognized by the experiencer, unless he is
trained in psychoanalysis. A symmetrical pattern of candles and
rosebuds, for example, may be seen to have definite psychoanalytic
significance. Even if those objects are present in the room, one
may ask why those particular objects and not others were incorporated
into the pattern. If faces of people not present in the room or
foreign objects become involved, the experience may definitely
be seen to be moving in a psychodynamic direction.
If music is being played, synesthesia often develops. The pattern
thus seems to flow with the music, even changing color at appropriate
places. If the music is slow and minor, the lines may move slowly
and be darkly colored; if the music is fast and major, the lines
may swoop almost violently and be brightly colored. When a new
theme is introduced, a new pattern may emerge in the midst of
the old pattern.
This level of experience is, of course, very shallow. If the experience
progresses beyond this level, one may seem to go through the
pattern towards mystical consciousness, experience more definite
psychoanalytic imagery and feelings, or enter states of more profound
aesthetic imagery.
In the latter case, common objects in the room may suddenly become
transformed into works of considerable beauty and artistic value.
Similarly, visions of objects not present may suddenly appear.
At times, in a dreamlike state, one may enter one's visions and
seem to be walking through gardens, art museums, medieval castles,
futuristic cities, etc. Archetypal imagery may appear, and one
thus finds oneself encountering mythological characters such as
angels, demons, dragons, and Grecian gods. On the boundary of
mystical consciousness, it is not uncommon for Christians to encounter
an image intuitively identified as the Christ.
Again, such imagery may have significance for psychotherapy, but
is not necessarily recognized as such. A beautiful golden column
in the majestic corridor of a visionary castle, covered with mosaics
of intricate design, may well be considered a glorified phallic
symbol. Needless to say, such connotations do not distort the
beauty of the imagery; rather the imagery may be understood to
elevate the polarity of the masculine and the feminine into its
rightful place in the nature of reality. The following quotation
is illustrative of this general level of experience:
I lay on my stomach and closed my eyes and brilliantly colored
geometrical patterns of fantastic beauty collided, exploded, raced
by. Other things too teeth and pearls and precious stones and
lips and eyes. Outside of the window the branches of the tree
were gigantic arms with transparent muscles, now threatening,
now embracing. Glasses started rolling on the table, the bookcase
was full of swimming books, the door bulged like a balloon, the
carpet in the other room was full of thousands of little green
snakes. The dial on the telephone was a huge pearl-studded wheel.
The shapes and colors of objects got more and more intense, the
outlines etched with luminous clarity and depth. Anything with
a polished metal surface turned into gleaming gold or silver.
.. The faces of other people became clear and beautiful and open.
At one point all faces were colored green.
Associated with such imagery, the experiencer may live through
the whole spectrum of human feelings. He may experience a variety
of intriguing somatic sensations, feeling as though his body is
melting, falling apart, or exploding into minute fragments. On
occasion sexual pleasure may be experienced; it is not uncommon
for persons to giggle or laugh uproariously.
Although some aspects of aesthetic experience may be very beautiful
and inspiring, they are hardly to be considered mystical. It is
easy to understand why persons who frequently experience aesthetic
phenomena may take psychedelic drugs for "kicks." The
artist may enter this world in search of new inspiration and improved
perception. As mystical consciousness is seldom entered without
serious preparation and a quiet, reverent atmosphere, we may suggest
that the experiences of most people at "LSD parties"
are of an aesthetic nature. It may be of significance that many,
if not most, of the persons who experience mystical consciousness
show little interest in taking a psychedelic drug again for a
period of at least several months, claiming that they have many
profound experiences to ponder and assimilate.
PSYCHODYNAMIC PHENOMENA
Although many of the aesthetic phenomena discussed above may have
definite psychodynamic significance, the significance is purely
symbolic and must be interpreted for the experiencer, unless he
happens to be alert to various forms of archetypal imagery and
their meaning during the drug session. There are other forms of
altered consciousness, however, in which the psychodynamic nature
of the phenomena is obvious to the experiencer at the precise
time that the experience occurs.
One of the clearest forms of such psychodynamic experience is
actual regression to infancy or early childhood. Writing of his
work, employing psychedelic drugs in psychotherapy, Spencer (1963,
p. 37) states: "Not only did LSD enable unconscious memories
to be recovered easily, but their being relived was extremely
realistic to the patient, as they were frequently accompanied
by changes in the body image, so that the patient felt he was
of the physical size and age he had been when the traumatic experience
occurred." This form of experience has been especially common
in clinics where reasonably small doses of the drugs have been
employed in the treatment of neurotic patients. The following
two descriptions are typical of such experience:
I then fell much deeper into the experience and lay in a bassinet
as a baby about a quarter-year old. I felt very comfortable. Then
suddenly coldness broke out within me and all around me. (Fernandez-Cerdeno,
1964, p. 18)
I had a memory of tremendous sexual excitement. I felt that I
was about six and that somebody had been "playing" with
me sexually... I could remember being held down and the uncontrolled
lustful look on my uncle's face absolutely vividly. It was as
though it had happened yesterday. (Ling & Buckman, 1964)
Another type of experience that may be strongly therapeutic involves
the unexpected confrontation of guilt. The following illustration
is taken from the report of a person who had been seriously neglecting
his wife and children:
I opened my eyes and there was a picture over the mantle...
There seemed to be m front of this picture many veils hanging
and I pushed each veil aside one by one, knowing that as I got
the last veil aside I would finally see God... Finally the
last veil was to be removed. I knew it was the last veil and tried
to prepare myself for the great experience of seeing God. I raised
my hand over my head and then leaned backwards to make myself
more receptive in order to feel the full force of God. And finally
the last veil was pulled aside and there were my three children
crying for their father... Before me was going all the selfish
feelings—all the selfish attitudes that I had had throughout
my entire married life.
In contrast to aesthetic experiences, even those consisting of
visions that obviously portray psychoanalytic themes, these experiences
generally involve abreaction, being marked by intense struggle
and suffering. Feelings such as guilt, grief, or hostility may
be experienced in great intensity. Such experiences may be useful
in facilitating psychotherapy if a competent therapist is available
both at the time these experiences occur and in the following
weeks to help the patient integrate feelings and insights. Without
competent psychiatric supervision, such experiences may, at best,
remain frightening memories and, at worst, cause a person to decompensate
under the stress.
PSYCHOTIC PHENOMENA
Although some researchers would hold that all phenomena occurring
in altered states of consciousness should be labeled "psychotic,"
here we reserve the term for experiences of paranoia, of panic,
or of extreme disorientation and confusion. Paranoia, usually
manifested in systematized delusions of reference, generally occurs
when one attempts to control the experience instead of passively
yielding to whatever develops. Similarly, panic seems to be associated
with an attempt to escape from emerging experiences instead of
accepting and confronting them. Because the crucial importance
of this sense of unconditional trust was not realized until recently,
much of the early work with psychedelic drugs was called "psycho-mimetic"
(psychosis-mimicking). When subjects were given a psychedelic
drug without knowing what to expect or how to respond, often being
left alone in a dark room or threatened by unfamiliar researchers
demanding cooperation in psychological testing, it is easy to
understand why many experiences quickly became psychotic. If nonpsychotic
experiences are desired, subjects must be prepared, must feel
secure in a friendly environment, and above all must be willing
and able to trust in a reality greater than themselves.
Besides paranoia and panic, the experience of feeling as though
one is separated from the world by a thick, glass wall, being
trapped in a silent, unreal room where no activity whatsoever
is occurring has been reported. This form of experience may be
associated with the presence of penicillamine in the body (Hoffer,
1965), and may result when one has recently taken penicillin.
Further, one may become thoroughly disorientated and confused—symptoms
that may well be labeled psychotic. Generally, one can vacillate
almost at will from experiential depths to the clarity of usual,
rational consciousness; that is to say, one can "go in"
and have an experience and then "come out" and discuss
the experience with other people or speak about it into the microphone
of a tape-recorder—after which, of course, one can "go
in" again. When aesthetic, psychodynamic, or mystical phenomena
occur, consciousness is usually clearer than normal, a sharp contrast
to any sense of confusion.
COGNITIVE PHENOMENA
There is a form of psychedelic experience that occasionally occurs
when small dosage is administered or just before returning to
usual consciousness when one feels capable of thinking unusually
sharply, quickly, and clearly. Such experience is cognitive
as opposed to intuitive; that is, it is the process
we usually call thinking. Visionary imagery is seldom seen
during this time and few changes in feeling-tone are manifested.
One often feels acutely sensitive to the meaning of words and
to very fine differentiations between similar words. Further,
one seems to be conscious of the presuppositions underlying one's
thoughts and of the interrelations between different ideas. Chain
reactions of associations and inferences may occur, and one may
feel as though one is able to think on several different levels
of discourse all at once. Since paranoic thinking can follow a
similar pattern, the validity of this feeling of cognitive excellence
is subject to serious questioning. As yet no experiment has been
designed to test it.
MISCELLANEOUS PHENOMENA
Some phenomena do not seem to fit into any of the preceding categories
and thus are briefly mentioned here for the sake of comprehensiveness.
Photic phenomena are often, but not always, reported by
persons who experience mystical consciousness, usually in the
sense of seeing a brilliant white light, perhaps similar to the
light experienced by Saint Paul at the time of his conversion.
Electrical phenomena occur fairly frequently as subjects
seem to become aware of the flow of electrical energy in their
bodies. At times electrical energy may seem to flow in a pattern
corresponding to the peripheral nervous system; at times it may
seem to ascend the spinal column from its base, bursting into
the brain—an experience also described by adepts of Yoga as
the kundalini force. Psychosomatic phenomena such as nausea,
rapid heartbeat, clammy coldness, or contractions of the stomach
occasionally occur, usually being associated with an attempt of
the experiencer to resist and control the experience. Evolutionary
phenomena occasionally occur, in which the subject feels as
though he is reliving part of the evolutionary process or, more
probably, reliving part of his own foetal development. Some parapsychological
phenomena of a telepathic, clairvoyant or precognitive nature
have been reported, but none have been conclusively validated
at this stage of research. Phenomena of somatic change occur
as people experience changes in kinesthetic and cutaneous reception.
Claims of merging with floorboards or feeling unity with the walls
of a room that have been misinterpreted as mystical belong in
this category. Such experiences entail intriguing changes in perception,
but do not necessarily involve the extinguishing of the empirical
ego. Similarly, there are experiences of altered perception
of time that do not entail the mystical transcendence of time.
Experiences may occur with such rapidity that a minute may seem
like several hours to a subject. On the other hand, a subject
may feel that only an hour has passed when he has been in the
psychedelic state for several hours. Such slowing down or speeding
up of time experience may precede or follow entry into mystical
consciousness, but in themselves should not be considered mystical
in nature. As mentioned above, the mystical transcendence of time
and space involves an experience described as eternity or infinity.
Finally, mention of consciousness of bodily processes may
be made, including those experiences in which one becomes acutely
aware of various aspects of the body's physiological mechanism
as it functions.
In summary, we see that no person is ever justified in speaking
of the psychedelic experience, as there is great variation among
individual experiences. In any single psychedelic session, of
course, any number of the forms of consciousness discussed above
may be experienced. The person who enters mystical consciousness,
for example, will almost undoubtedly also experience some aesthetic
phenomena between the time the mystic intensity wanes and the
moment of his return to usual consciousness. Furthermore, psychological
problems may have to be encountered before a "breakthrough"
into mystical consciousness is possible. It thus becomes obvious
that studies of behavioral and attitudinal changes in persons
who have ingested these drugs must be correlated with the types
of phenomena experienced before any significant conclusions can
be drawn. The findings of Blum and his coworkers (1964) in their
study of persons who have ingested psychedelic drugs would have
been much more relevant and meaningful had such a correlation
been made.
A STUDY IN EXPERIMENTAL MYSTICISM
Of all the varieties of psychedelic experiences, the type that
has elicited the most enthusiastic interest as well as the most
indignant rebuttal from both psychiatric and theological spokesmen
is the mystical experience. The claim that spontaneous mystical
experiences are similar to, if not identical with, psychedelic
experiences of drug-facilitated mystical consciousness has caused
considerable apprehension and dismay among some religious professionals,
and the possible therapeutic potential of experiences of mystical
consciousness has been somewhat embarrassing to those therapists
who pride themselves on their scientific objectivity and lack
of religious involvement. Whether or not the mystical experience
is "religious" is naturally dependent upon one's definition
of "religion," and to raise this point only confuses
the issue, although such experiences may well have religious implications.
In order to provide some evidence in a systematic and scientific
manner, Pahnke (1963) in 1962 designed and executed a controlled,
double-blind experiment to investigate the relationship between
the experiences recorded in the literature of spontaneous mysticism
and those reportedly associated with the ingestion of psychedelic
drugs. Prior to the experiment, from a study of the writings of
the mystics and commentaries upon them, a phenomenological typology
of the mystical state of consciousness was formulated, with which
experimental descriptions subsequently could be compared. The
categories of this typology were the same as those presented above
in the definition of mystical consciousness.
Twenty subjects were chosen for the experiment, all graduate-student
volunteers with middle-class Protestant backgrounds from one denominational
seminary, none of whom had ever taken any of the psychedelic drugs
prior to the experiment. Screening procedures had included psychological
tests, a physical examination, a psychiatric interview and questionnaires
inquiring medical history and previous religious experiences.
These subjects were divided into five groups of four students
on the basis of compatibility and friendship. Ten leaders who
knew the positive and negative possibilities of psychedelic experience
then assisted in preparations for the experiment two leaders meeting
with each group of four subjects to encourage trust, dissipate
fears, and establish group rapport. Subjects were encouraged to
relax and cooperate with the drug effects, but no mention was
made of the characteristics of the typology of mystical consciousness.
On the day of the experiment, Good Friday, 1962, the subjects
and leaders met in a lounge beside a private chapel into which
the service in the main sanctuary would subsequently be transmitted
over loudspeakers. There, ninety minutes before the service began,
capsules identical in appearance were administered, some contained
thirty milligrams of psilocybin and some containing two hundred
milligrams of nicotinic acid, a vitamin that causes feelings of
warmth and tingling of the skin, but has no effect upon the mind.
Half of the subjects and one of the leaders in group received
psilocybin. Because double-blind technique was employed, neither
the experimenter nor any of the participants (leaders or subjects)
knew the contents of any given capsule. Further, as the use of
an inactive placebo had been anticipated by the subjects as a
control substance, suggestion was maximized for the control group
when the nicotinic acid began to act.
Inside the private chapel, the subjects and leaders listened to
a two-and-one-half-hour religious service consisting of organ
music, four solos, readings, prayers, and personal meditation.
The experimental design presupposed that in order for experiences
most likely to be mystical, the atmosphere should be broadly comparable
to that achieved by tribes who use natural psychedelic substances
in their religious ceremonies, and that the particular content
and procedure of the ceremony had to be applicable (e.g., familiar
and meaningful) to the participants.
Immediately following the service, tape-recordings were made both
of individual reactions and of the group discussions that followed.
As soon after the experiment as was convenient, each subject wrote
a detailed phenomenological account of his experience. Within
a week all subjects had completed a 147-item questionnaire designed
to measure phenomena of the typology of mystical consciousness
on a qualitative, numerical scale. The results of this questionnaire
were used as the basis for a ninety-minute tape-recorded interview
that followed immediately. Six months later each subject was interviewed
again after completion of a follow-up questionnaire in three parts
with a similar scale. The first part was open-ended; the participant
was asked to list any changes that he felt were a result of his
Good Friday experience and to rate the degree of benefit or harm
of each change. The second part (52 items) was a condensed and
somewhat more explicit repetition of items from the post-drug
questionnaire. The third part (93 items) was designed to measure
both positive and negative attitudinal and behavioral changes
that had lasted for six months and were felt to be due to the
experience. The individual, descriptive accounts and the first
part of the follow-up questionnaire were then content-analyzed
with a qualitative, numerical scale by judges who were independent
from the experiment.
When the data from (a) the post-drug questionnaire, (b) the follow-up
questionnaire, and (c) the content-analysis of the written accounts
were analyzed, the conclusion was drawn that, under the conditions
of this experiment, those subjects who received psilocybin experienced
phenomena that were apparently indistinguishable from, if not
identical with, certain categories defined by the typology of
mystical consciousness. Statistically, the scores of the experimental
subjects from all three methods of measurement were significantly
higher than those of the control subjects in all categories except
"sense of sacredness." In all the other eight categories
there were less than two chances in one hundred that the difference
was due only to chance rather than to psilocybin, and in more
than half of the categories, less than two chances in one thousand.
Even sacredness showed a statistically significant difference
in score (chance expectation of no more than five chances in one
hundred) from both questionnaires, but not from the content-analysis.
The degree of completeness or intensity of the various categories
was presented and discussed by comparing the consistency of score
levels on individual items and groups of items among the three
methods of measurement. Not all categories were experienced in
the most complete way possible, although there was evidence that
each category had been experienced to some degree. A more detailed
description of this experiment, including statistical analysis
of the data, has been published elsewhere (Pahnke, 1966, 1967).
INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS
IMPLICATIONS FOR THEOLOGY
On the basis of the research findings discussed above, it now
appears possible to select almost any normal, healthy person and,
combining a sufficient dose of a psychedelic substance with a
supportive set and setting, enable that person to experience various
altered forms of consciousness. The mystical experience seems
the most difficult to facilitate, perhaps because of the as yet
undetermined roles of personality variables; but nonetheless,
these phenomena are now sufficiently reproducible to allow mysticism
to be studied scientifically under laboratory conditions. Thus
at long last, research into mysticism need no longer be limited
to the scholarly scrutiny of various devotional or metaphysical
documents left behind by such historic personages as Shankara,
Plotinus, Meister Eckhart, William Blake, and Teresa of Avila.
Persons can be studied extensively both before and after the experience
of mystical consciousness in controlled settings. As noted above,
experimental subjects who have experienced this form of consciousness
have made powerful claims of increased personality-integration,
of greater sensitivity to the authentic problems of other persons,
of a responsible independence of social pressures, of both sensing
deeper purposes in life and losing anxieties about death, guilt,
and meaninglessness, and so forth. If research continues, there
is no reason why such claims cannot be studied empirically and
then either accepted as valid or dismissed as instances of emotional
exaggeration and wishful thinking.
To some theologians, the awareness that it appears possible to
experience mystical consciousness (samadhi in advaitan
Hinduism, satori in Zen Buddhism, the beatific vision
in Christianity) with the help of a drug on a free Saturday
afternoon at first appears ironic and even profane. Such experience
is the goal of life for most followers of the Hindu, Buddhist,
and Taoist religions. In Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, it
has generally been viewed as a gift bestowed by God upon certain
saints and prophets who have lived lives of exceptional stature.
It is understandable that throughout Christian history, certain
leaders have responded defensively whenever such biochemical aids
to mystical consciousness have been encountered. Padre Nicolas
de Leon, a Spanish missionary in Mexico who found that the Aztecs
were using peyote (the natural source of mescaline), for example,
included the following questions in the confessional that priests
were instructed to employ in their examinations of penitent Indians:
Art thou a sooth-sayer? Dost thou foretell events by reading omens,
interpreting dreams, or by tracing circles and figures on water?
... Dost thou suck the blood of others? Dost thou wander about
at night calling upon demons to help thee? Hast thou drunk peyote
or given it to others to drink...? (LaBarre, 1964)
More recently, a very able professor of comparative religions
at Oxford, R. G. Zaehner, has responded to the psychedelic drugs
in a similarly irrational and defensive manner. Zaehner even submitted
himself to "artificial interference with consciousness"
at one time for the purpose of proving that "this state.
.. has nothing at all to do with what Christians... mean by
the Beatific Vision" (Zaehner, 1954). As might be expected,
Zaehner did not experience mystical consciousness in this session,
but had a rather shallow aesthetic experience, typical of subjects
with considerable anxiety and resistance. Unfortunately the publication
of his experience did not prove the existence of the Thomistic
gulf between the natural and the supernatural as he had hoped,
but rather reflected the mental set of a dedicated Roman Catholic
convert (Zaehner, 1961, pp. 212-226).
Perhaps one of the reasons mysticism has come to be considered
other-worldly in the sense of being an escape from social responsibilities
lies not in the nature of mystical consciousness itself, but rather
in the poor methods that have been used by men to gain such experience.
The medieval monk in his darkened cell and the hermit in the deep
recesses of his cave, for example, used not psychedelic substances,
but the tools of sensory deprivation, sleep deprivation, meditative
disciplines, and fasting to elicit biochemical changes and unlock
the door to unconscious levels of mind. The Hindu yogin uses similar
methods in addition to autohypnosis and breath control, the latter
increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood and triggering
unconscious levels of mind (see Meduna, 1950). Altered forms of
consciousness often occur unexpectedly and spontaneously when
one is undergoing great mental stress and is exhausted physically.
It would appear logical to suggest that whenever altered forms
of consciousness occur, whether they are anticipated or come as
a complete surprise, underlying biochemical activity may be involved.
Thus the Hindu yogin practicing breath control or the Christian
monk spending long hours in solitary prayer may be seen to be
influencing body chemistry in the same direction as the modern
man who ingests a psychedelic drug. In all seriousness, one may
ask if the yogin or monk has much time for social action when
perhaps a major portion of his life is spent in withdrawal from
the world. Furthermore, such ascetic practices are poor means
of unlocking the unconscious and may be similar to the ingestion
of extremely small doses of the psychedelics. One thus enters
aesthetic realms of experience more often than mystical consciousness
itself. It is granted that other nonmystical forms of experience
that may be considered "religious" are also known to
occur, with and without the assistance of drugs. There is reason
to think that other-worldliness may be a result, not of going
too deep into the unconscious mind, but rather of not going deep
enough. It seems significant that persons who have experienced
mystical consciousness generally feel thrown back into the very
heart of life in this world and feel also that they have been
given the inner strength to cope with suffering and struggle in
society. It would seem better for a person to have a drug-facilitated
experience of mystical consciousness, enjoy the enriched life
that may follow, and serve other persons during the greater part
of his life than to live a life that may be inauthentic and withdrawn
until old age, when such an experience may occur by means of ascetic
practices.
Some persons concerned with religion are disturbed by drug-facilitated
mystical experiences because of the apparent ease of production,
implying that they are "unearned" and therefore "undeserved."
Perhaps the Puritanical and Calvinistic element of our Western
culture, especially in the United States where most of the controversy
about psychedelic drugs has centered, may be a factor in this
uneasiness. Although a drug-facilitated experience might seem
unearned when compared with the rigorous discipline that many
mystics describe as necessary, the available evidence suggests
that careful preparation and expectation play an important part,
not only in determining the type of experience attained, but in
determining the extent of later fruits for life. By no means is
positive mystical experience with the psychedelic drugs automatic.
It would seem that this specific "drug effect" is a
delicate combination of psychological set and setting in which
drug itself is only the trigger or facilitating agent. Rather
than a psychedelic experience being an easy way to achieve growth,
many subjects report that the subjective sense of work done during
the drug session entails as much suffering and exhaustion as would
be encountered in several years of living. But perhaps the hardest
work comes after the experience when insights must be integrated.
Unless such an experience is integrated into the on-going life
of a person, only a memory remains rather than the growth of an
unfolding process of renewal that may be awakened by the mystical
experience. If the person has a religious framework and discipline
within which to work, the integrative process is encouraged and
stimulated. In this respect, Huston Smith's (I964, p. 165) distinction
between "religious experiences" and "religious
lives" is especially noteworthy. Many persons may not need
the drug-facilitated mystical experience, but there are others
who would never become aware of the undeveloped potentials within
themselves or become inspired to work in this direction without
such experience. "Gratuitous grace" is an appropriate
theological term in this connection, for the psychedelic mystical
experience can lead to a profound sense of inspiration, reverential
awe and humility, perhaps correlated with the feeling that the
experience is essentially a gift from a transcendent source, a
gift that can never be earned or deserved by any man.
In a paper of this scope, it is impossible to deal adequately
with any of the theological questions raised by this field of
research. Suffice it to say that there is an increasing need for
contemporary theologians to include mystical consciousness in
their rational reflections. Among experimental subjects who have
known this dimension of experience, some have reported an enrichment
of their understanding of Christianity, claiming that dead dogmas
have suddenly come alive; others with less theological sophistication
have despaired at the seeming indifference of dogma-centered churches
to mystical experience and have turned towards the religions of
the East. Tillich has perceptively noted that "The alliance
of psychoanalysis and Zen Buddhism in some members of the upper
classes of Western society (those within the Protestant tradition)
is a symptom of dissatisfaction with a Protestantism in which
the mystical element is lost" (Tillich, I963, p. 243). Perhaps
basically, theologians need to acknowledge the reality of other
worlds, other dimensions of Being, to which man has access through
the mystery of mind, but which no man would claim as his own personal
property any more than the tourist who once visited Paris would
claim that Paris was part of himself. Besides the works of Tillich,
the recent impassioned attempt of Karl Jaspers (1962, 1963) to
relate his Existenzphilosophie to Christian theology could
prove valuable to theologians concerned with this creative area
of thought.
In general, mysticism and inner experience have been stressed
much more by Eastern than by Western religions. Perhaps Western
culture is as far off balance in the opposite direction with its
manipulation of the external world as exemplified by the
emphasis on material wealth, control of nature, and admiration
of science. As mentioned above, mysticism has been accused of
fostering escapism from the problems of society, indifference
to social conditions, and disinterest in social change. While
the possibility of such excesses must be considered, the beneficial
potential of mystical experience in stimulating the ability to
feel and experience deeply and genuinely with the full harmony
of both emotion and intellect has been indicated in the course
of psychedelic research.
Further, the experience of mystical consciousness may enable Western
scholars better to understand the so-called elusive "Eastern
mind." In the approaching era of unprecedented cultural interaction,
this possibility could be of profound significance. Not only the
religious systems of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism, but also
Eastern political traditions and even Eastern forms of architecture
may be seen to have largely originated in various forms of altered
consciousness. After such experience, contemplation may take on
new meaning for the Western man who finds little time to ponder
the meaning of his own existence and the philosophical presuppositions
upon which his religious, political, scientific, and ethical convictions
rest.
It is also possible that psychedelic drug experiences carefully
employed in a religious setting (as in the experiment described
above) could illumine our understanding of the dynamics and significance
of worship. Increased understanding of the psychological mechanisms
involved might lead to more meaningful worship experiences for
those who have had neither spontaneous nor drug-facilitated experiences.
Light might be shed upon doctrines of the Holy Spirit and the
efficacy of sacraments, for example, thus enriching worship through
psychological understanding. Such considerations raise the question
of the place of emotion as opposed to cognition in religious worship.
An even more basic question inquires into the validity of mystical
consciousness in terms of religious truth. Reactions to such questions
and possibilities will vary with theological positions and presuppositions,
but the field under discussion invites thoughtful examination
by those persons concerned with the lack of meaning reported by
many contemporary church members in conjunction with religious
worship.
The ethical implications relevant to this field of inquiry also
merit careful examination. Any research that uses human volunteers
must examine its motives and methods to make certain that human
beings are not being manipulated like objects for purposes that
they neither understand nor share. But in research with powerful
mental chemicals that may influence the most cherished human functions
and values, the ethical problem is even more acute. Historically,
mystical experience has filled man with wondrous awe and has been
able to change his style of life and values; but it must not be
assumed that increased control of such powerful phenomena will
automatically result in wise and constructive uses. Potential
abuses are equally possible. The degree to which brainwashing
techniques could be enhanced by the psychedelics is at present
unknown. As persons in the deeper states of altered consciousness
are so hypersensitive to the fine nuances of interpersonal communication,
especially in terms of love and honesty, deception and manipulation
may be minimized. In this sense, the drugs may be seen to have
a "built-in control." Yet there are many varieties of
psychedelic experience that do not entail such Buberic communication
and may certainly be prone to suggestive influences, either for
good or evil.
IMPLICATIONS FOR PSYCHIATRY
Turning from the religious implications of these drugs to their
possible applications in psychiatry, we find that in the more
than twenty years during which LSD has been investigated under
medically controlled conditions, two major methods of therapeutic
application have evolved. The first, called psycholytic therapy
and predominant in Europe, involves a small-dose technique (e.g.,
25 to 100 mcg. of LSD) in weekly or bi-weekly sessions in order
to facilitate the release of unconscious material and aid psychotherapy
or group therapy. Sandison and Spencer (Sandison, Spencer, &
Whitlaw, I954) in England and Leuner (1962) in Germany have pioneered
in this method. Leuner in particular uses a psychoanalytic approach
in working through the material during the drug sessions themselves
as well as during the time between subsequent sessions. Mascher
(1967) recently reviewed the research presented in forty-two scientific
papers that describe the method and results of psycholytic therapy
in sixteen hundred patients during the past fifteen years. LSD
sessions are considered superior to Amytal interviews, for example,
insofar as the patient remains alertly conscious during the experience
and has much less amnesia afterwards.
The second method, called psychedelic therapy and used mainly
in the United States and Canada, involves a much smaller number
of sessions, or even a single session, but at a higher dosage
in order to produce an experience with such an overwhelming impact
that the patient's view of the world and himself may be radically
changed in a healthful and therapeutic manner. The primary aim
is to achieve a breakthrough to a "psychedelic peak"
that has the characteristics described above in the definition
of mystical consciousness. Relatively high dosage is a necessary,
but not a sufficient, condition for eliciting a psychedelic peak.
Through careful preparation, a trustful bond of rapport with the
therapist must be established as in any effective therapy. Special
skill on the part of an experienced psychedelic therapist must
be used for guiding the patient during the actual drug session.
Careful planning of both the emotional atmosphere and the physical
environment is important. Stimuli such as classical music (symphonic
and choral) with long, flowing phrases, beautiful flowers, and
reproductions of great works of art have proved helpful. After
the drug session, the therapist must accept the crucial task of
helping the patient integrate what he has learned during this
intense, existential experience. Frequently this entails the direct
confrontation of problematic situations in the patient's everyday
world. Descriptions of this method have been written by Chwelos
and co-workers (Chwelos, Blewett, Smith, & Hoffer, I959),
MacLean and co-workers (MacLean, MacDonald, Byrne, & Hubbard,
1961), and Sherwood and co-workers (Sherwood, Stolaroff, &
Harman, 1962). Also instructive is Unger's excellent review article
(1963) and his description of the English language literature
(1964b).
If the claims of therapeutic help from such experiences are substantiated
in the controlled, clinical trials now being conducted, the need
for, and relevance of, interdisciplinary discussion in this area
between psychiatry and religion is accentuated. At the Spring
Grove State Hospital in Baltimore, two projects that have been
supported by the National Institute of Mental Health are in progress.
There the effects of psychedelic therapy are being investigated
on two groups of hospitalized patients: chronic alcoholics and
severe psychoneurotics. A1though the final results must be judged
by the statistical evaluation of long-term follow-up studies in
comparison with control groups, the early reports are encouraging
(Kurland, Unger, & Shaffer, 1967; Savage, 1966). Mystical
consciousness is being experienced by these patients, many of
whom were not previously interested in either religion or mysticism.
A project in Massachusetts began to investigate the possible effectiveness
of psychedelic therapy in the rehabilitation of prisoners, but
unfortunately was interrupted and remains incomplete and inconclusive
(Leary, Metzner, Presnell, Weil, Schwitzgebel, & Kinne, 1965;
Leary & Clark, 1963). It is probable that such a procedure
would have the highest chance of success if it were co-ordinated
with a treatment program that included job placement.
At the Federal Narcotics Hospital in Lexington, Kentucky, drug
addicts have been treated with a combination of LSD and hypnosis-so-called
hypnodelic therapy. This technique is now also being applied to
chronic alcoholics in a study at the Mendota State Hospital in
Madison, Wisconsin (Levine & Ludwig, 1967; Ludwig, 1966).
When LSD was compared with narcotics as a pain-relieving agent
for terminal cancer patients at the Cook County Hospital in Chicago
(Kast, 1964), a marked analgesic effect was noted; but of greater
significance, it appears possible that psychedelic therapy can
provide an opportunity for the dying patient to view his life
and death in a new perspective (Cohen, 1965). Useful possibilities
of working with such experiences by those who care for and minister
to the dying open up an area for investigation that has all too
often been a depressing embarrassment to physicians in spite of
the triumphs of modern medicine and surgery. Because of the unique
effects of mystical consciousness upon attitudes and interpersonal
relationships, not only the patient, but also his family may be
able to approach and view death in a new way. Old barriers and
defenses can crumble within the patient, making possible meaningful
dialogue with family members and friends concerning issues and
feelings of mutual importance. This as yet relatively unexplored
area of psychedelic research needs much more attention and careful
study. Again the obvious religious implications highlight the
intersection of psychiatry and religion.
Even if the therapeutic effectiveness of psychedelic therapy is
eventually demonstrated empirically in carefully controlled clinical
research, a further problem still remains. As yet there is no
adequate theory to explain why the experience of mystical consciousness
should facilitate therapy. Some of the researchers have claimed
that "the root of the therapeutic effectiveness of the LSD
experience is its potential for producing self-acceptance"
(Chwelos et al., 1959, p. 589). This view has definite parallels
with aspects of Paul Tillich's thought. The renewed sense of self-esteem
noted in some patients after such experience may be due to a realignment
of ego defenses and boundaries. Alcoholics who have experienced
psychedelic mystical consciousness are surprised to discover that
they have some internal, intrinsic worth as members of the human
race and seem to gain a new self-concept involving goodness and
love.
In trying to account for the phenomena associated with mystical
consciousness, the concept of regression has been proposed (Prince
& Savage, 1965). Such aspects of mystical consciousness as
"unity" and "deeply felt positive mood" are
certainly suggestive of the prenatal life of a foetus. Theories
that dismiss mystical consciousness as "mere regression"
or "an oceanic feeling of primary process," however,
fail to wrestle with the noetic aspects of "objectivity and
reality" and "transcendence of space and time."
The mind appears to gain the ability of operating on many levels
at once, while grasping interrelations of psychic functioning.
The concept of time does not merely lose meaning, but, more impressively,
is seen in a new perspective. Subjects assert that they felt "outside
of" time, beyond both past and future, as though they were
viewing the totality of history from a transcendent vantage point.
The feeling of profundity and truth that insights acquire under
the influence of psychedelic drugs may be a delusion: but this
quality seems to provide the motivation for the patient to affect
behavior change, especially if the insight gained holds true for
the particular person when examined and tested later when the
rational mind is again in full command. Because the life experience
and learning acquired over the years are retained while in this
altered state of consciousness, perhaps the term "regression
in the service of the ego" is more appropriate.
IMPLICA1IONS FOR SOCIETY
As is unfortunately true with many potentially beneficial but
powerful discoveries, such as fire or atomic energy, misuse and
abuse are possible if the discoveries are improperly handled.
The psychedelic drugs are no exception, as the growing black market
ominously testifies. There are an increasing number of people
who are obtaining these drugs illegally and ingesting them without
psychiatric screening, preparation, supervision, or follow-up
therapy.
Such practices will inevitably lead to psychiatric casualties
as have already been reported in the medical literature (Frosch,
Robbins, Stern, 1965). When certain borderline or pre-psychotic
persons take psychedelic drugs without capable psychiatric supervision,
there is a risk of prolonged psychosis, irresponsible behavior,
or suicide. Even persons who are in good physical and mental health
can become quite emotionally shaken when they discover that their
usual sense of control is suspended. Fighting to overcome the
drug effect can lead to intense fear and a psychotic reaction.
Most of the cases coming to psychiatric attention are acute panic
reactions that are usually reversible with proper drug treatment
and temporary hospitalization. There are also some persons who
seem to experience a spontaneous recurrence of the LSD effect
months after having last taken the drug. Usually these persons
are under stress when the symptoms recur. Although much more rare,
the cases of prolonged psychosis following LSD and lasting more
than a week are more alarming. A direct, causal relation to LSD
cannot always be determined, however, because an examination of
the case histories usually reveals severely disturbed persons
who probably were in severe psychological trouble prior to taking
the drug. Not all persons who seek psychiatric help after LSD,
however, are in acute distress or in need of hospitalization.
There are also a growing number of persons who mistakenly thought
they were in good mental health, but discovered during their drug
experience that many repressed problems came to the surface. This
realization may encourage such persons to work out their problems,
whereas previously they may have denied their reality or sought
some form of escape. Paradoxically enough these are people who
probably should have been in psychiatric treatment before, but
only now are motivated to do so. In the long run, with proper
help, many of them may be guided towards better mental adjustment,
but at best this is a risk-filled method of self-diagnosis.
In any discussion of the dangers of psychedelic drugs, it is essential
to consider the incidence rates of harmful effects. Cohen has
collected the only statistics of this nature published to date
and found that, in a survey of 5,000 persons who had taken psychedelic
drugs a total of 25,000 times, there was a suicide rate of one
per 2500 persons among psychiatric patients undergoing treatment,
and no attempted or completed suicides among experimental subjects.
Psychotic reactions lasting longer than forty-eight hours had
an incidence of one per 555 among patients and one per 1200 among
experimental subjects (Cohen, 1960). In commenting on Cohen's
statistics, Levine and Ludwig (1964) have emphasized the relative
safety of LSD when compared with other methods of psychiatric
treatment. Since Cohen's survey was published in I960, much more
has been learned about treatment procedures with LSD-type drugs
and the art of avoiding psychotic reactions. With this increased
knowledge, coupled with improved therapist training, the use of
LSD should become even safer. It must be emphasized, however,
that Cohen gathered his data from a survey of doctors engaged
in clinical research with these drugs. These statistics and comments,
therefore, refer only to the properly controlled, medical use
of LSD.
The current increase in dangerous after-effects is almost entirely
caused by the indiscriminate use of LSD among untrained persons.
Such use takes place outside legitimate research auspices without
medical supervision. These very real dangers must not be allowed
to obscure the potentials of a powerful therapeutic tool. To offer
an analogy, little benefit would be expected to come from an x-ray
machine if an untrained person were allowed to shoot x-rays in
all directions indiscriminately. In fact, unless the intensity
and frequency of the x-rays were carefully controlled, much harm
could result in the form of radiation sickness and permanent damage.
Although neither physiological addiction nor tissue damage has
been reported in the case of LSD, psychological dependence might
be expected if the experience were continually repeated. The intense
subjective pleasure and enjoyment, at least of aesthetic forms
of experience, could lead to escapism and withdrawal from the
world. An experience capable of changing motivation and values
might cut the nerve of achievement. Widespread apathy toward productive
work and accomplishment could cripple a society. It is unfortunate
that, at present, public opinion concerning these drugs is being
molded primarily on the basis of the response of the beatnik dimension
of society, a dimension that contains many persons already in
poor states of mental health. Such persons are accused of numerous
forms of irresponsible behavior, and also the sin of quietism—of
claiming inspiration, but producing few concrete works of social,
literary, or artistic promise.
There are relatively few experimental studies that provide information
concerning the possible continuing benefits of psychedelic drug
experiences in normal, mentally healthy persons who have already
established a responsible and creative position in society. In
fact, these people cannot legally take the drugs unless they happen
to live near one of the few qualified research projects. Increased
legitimate opportunities for both average and gifted people to
take these drugs under adequate supervision will be needed before
the possible beneficial effects for individual persons and society
can be assessed.
Practically speaking, the reality of the black market must be
confronted. LSD can take the form of a clear, odorless, tasteless
liquid. It can be quite easily and inexpensively manufactured
in a home laboratory by any good organic chemist. Two hundred
millionths of a gram constitutes a powerful dose that is no larger
than a drop of water. At present there is a 1000% to 3000% mark-up
from manufacturer to consumer. So it is that attempts to control
the black market by police force face serious obstacles and almost
certainly will prove futile. There is, in fact, a growing demand
for these drugs, not only among the rebellious element of society,
but also among our future leaders who are now attending universities,
Many of the sensationalistic articles in the popular press that
have presented somewhat slanted accounts of the bizarre and lurid
effects of these drugs rather than their potential usefulness
have only attracted more interest and curiosity from the very
people who should not take the drugs, and have tended to decrease
support for responsible investigation.
If the recent estimate is correct that one million doses of LSD
will be consumed in the United States in 1966 (Rosenfeld &
Farrell, 1966), the usage will probably grow at an even faster
rate because each person who has a positive experience will introduce
at least one or two of his friends to the drug. Positive experiences
are much more common than negative ones, and it is a human fallacy
to believe that a bad reaction "won't happen to me."
How then can we deal constructively with the problems posed by
the black market}
It would seem that not suppression, but informed education and
an expanded program of research with an interdisciplinary approach
is urgently needed. Education needs a basis of empirically derived
facts on which to draw. To gather such facts, concerning both
dangers and possible benefits, increased, responsible research
in all realms of application is needed before research is stopped
because of the growing public hysteria in the face of the black
market. We propose carefully controlled studies in which drug
dosage, setting, personality variables, experimenter expectation,
experimental procedure, and follow-up can be regulated. Only then
can answers be found to questions concerning the personality characteristics
or disturbances that contraindicate the use of the drugs, the
optimal treatment procedures to insure the most beneficial effect,
and the best screening procedures to identify persons most likely
to be harmed or those who should be singled out for special handling.
Patients with various symptoms and relatively normal subjects
both need to be intensely studied in such experiments.
Because persons who take the drugs on their own are most interested
in aesthetic and mystical experiences, research needs to be focused
on the possible benefit or harm resulting from such experiences.
Another variable needing elucidation is the effect of frequency
of ingestion. It is conceivable that benefit might result from
an experience once or twice a year, whereas weekly exposures might
cause chronic deleterious changes in personality.
Because these drugs are without a doubt the most powerful psychoactive
agents known to man, their use needs to be supervised by persons
who have received specialized training. In view of the wide range
of potential applications, an interdisciplinary approach to their
use is essential. A training and research center for psychedelic
therapists will probably need to be established. The staff of
such a center should include psychiatrists, clinical psychologists,
and professional religious personnel.
The results of increased knowledge from such research on the drugs
may provide an answer to the problem of the black market. If legitimate
medical uses and methods are confirmed and the dangers and benefits
are determined accurately, socially sanctioned centers for persons
desiring this form of human experience can be established. Most
persons would then probably prefer the safety of medical supervision
to the risk of black-market usage. Admittedly, this kind of solution
may lie a long way in the future and will depend upon the results
of careful yet imaginative and daring research. But this may be
the only way to deal effectively with this problem.
What would be the effect of relatively broad use of the psychedelics
in some future decade? Would people become more creative than
ever before? If the garbage collector experienced mystical consciousness,
would he collect garbage more passionately than ever before, or
would he escape to the forest or the university? Could these drugs
enrich society or do they threaten to destroy it? If the latter
should prove to be the case, are there ways in which this threat
can be lessened? These are questions whose crucial answers are
at present unknown. Not only are they unknown, but research aimed
at finding answers to them is severely limited in the United States.
Religion has long been accused by sociologists of being a prime
illustration of the phenomenon of the "cultural lag."
Bruno was burned at the stake for his adherence to the Copernican
view of the universe. For the same heretical belief, Galileo was
condemned and forced to recant, even though the truth of the panoramas
he had seen through his telescope were indelibly fixed upon his
mind. Similarly, Darwin was condemned for his heretical theory
of evolution. Yet, in retrospect, Christian theology, including
biblical interpretation, has been greatly enriched by the convictions
of these men. New glimpses into the nature of reality always seem
first to evoke defensive reactions of fear and, only later, reactions
of wonder and praise.
With these drugs, science stands on an awesome threshold. Some
religious leaders would undoubtedly consider it improper for man
to tread upon the holy ground of the unconscious, protesting against
the exploration of "inner space" as they have campaigned
against the exploration of outer space. But man's apparent destiny
to seek an ever greater comprehension of the nature of reality
cannot be thwarted or suppressed. The importance of research proceeding
in harmony with the highest known ethical principles, however,
is clear. Those who undertake such research carry a heavy responsibility.